Tracy Donachie. Believe. Be Positive.
  • Home
  • My Background
  • Blog
  • Testimonials
  • Athlete's Insight
  • Services
    • Individual Sessions
    • Group or Team Workshops
    • Coach Education
    • Business Leadership
  • Contact

My blog.

Perfectly Motivated?

4/20/2014

1 Comment

 
Picture
Understanding the psychological components that help with optimal athletic performance is a key priority for applied sport psychology.  A controversial issue within the field is perfectionism. Perfectionism is described as a broad multidimensional personality trait characterised by the pursuit of extremely high standards; striving for flawlessness, and over critical performance evaluation (Frost et al. 1990; Flett & Hewitt, 2005).  Some may debate that being a perfectionist athlete is admirable because of the desire to achieve, and high motivation levels (Stoeber, Uphill, & Hotham, 2009). Nevertheless,  perfectionism in sport is a controversial issue to which perfectionistic  tendencies are seen as both adaptive and maladaptive (Frost et al, 1993;  Terry-Short et al., 1995).

The multidimensional perfectionism scale devised by Hewitt & Flett (1991)  evaluates perfectionism from three perspectives; self-orientated; other  orientated and socially prescribed perfectionism. Self-orientated is the
excessive desire for perfectionism from one’s self, other orientated is demanding perfection from those around you and socially prescribed is the  perception that significant others demand perfection from you (Flett &
Hewitt, 2005). There has been much controversy within the literature regarding  which dimensions are adaptive and maladaptive, but the general consensus is that  socially prescribed is associated with the unhealthy maladaptive perfectionism  and self-orientated is linked to healthy adaptive (Hill et al. 1997; Flett &
Hewitt 2005).

 Adaptive perfectionism can be explained as a positive pursuit towards achievement, whereas maladaptive perfectionism is associated with being  concerned with evaluation; having a fear of failure and reacting negatively to defeat (Stoeber et al., 2008). Adaptive perfectionists typically set realistic goals prior to performance which ensures self confidence and motivation is maintained due to the belief that goals are obtainable (Slade & Owens, 1998). Therefore, adaptive perfectionism positively correlates with self-efficacy, motivation and high achievement amongst other desirable characteristics (Bieling et al. 2004).

Flett and Hewitt reported that although certain components of perfectionism may be positive, perfectionism is primarily maladaptive among athletes and exercisers (2005). Maladaptive perfectionism is positively associated with psychological difficulties such as distress (Stoeber & Eismann, 2007),  injury (Krasnow et al. 1999), depression (Minarik & Ahrens, 1996); self destruction; anxiety (Antony et al, 1998; Egan et al, 2006); neuroticism; personality disorders and eating disorders (Haase et al 2001; Anshel, 2004);  decreased physical health and well-being due to over training, disordered  eating, and low self esteem (Hill et al, 2010; Hewitt & Flett 1991; Hewitt  et al. 1992).  Hall (2006) also detailed that perfectionism is also associated  with shame (Tangney, 2002); performance anxiety (Hall, Kerr & Mathew, 1998);  and suicide ideation (Hewitt, Flett, & Turnbull-Donavon, 1992). Evidence  suggests that perfectionism may also act as a predisposing factor to athletes  developing burnout during their performance career (Hill et al, 2008).  When goals are not reached, maladaptive perfectionists engage in harsh self criticism  and irrational beliefs resulting in feelings of inadequacy; reduced motivation and decreased self-confidence (Flett & Hewitt 2005).

The cognitive processes underpinning perfectionism were first examined by  Horney (1950 In, Hall, 2013) and Ellis (1962, In. Hall, Hill & Appleton,  2013) who argued the core qualities of perfectionism are having a set of
irrational beliefs and a dysfunctional attitude. Flett et al. (1998) found that perfectionists may induce a pattern of intrusive self-focused thoughts about achieving perfectionism. Hill and Appleton (2011) showed that this cognitive process has corrosive influence on the quality of motivation in elite junior athletes. Nevertheless, there has been little research conducted on how perfectionism has been defined in sport, as the core qualities have emerged from other achievement disciplines.

Blatt (1995) offered that perfectionists may be resistant to direct attempts to alter ways of thinking and therefore, it may be effective to structure the learning and performance environment to change the perfectionist cognitions.  Being able to create an optimal motivational climate in athletes is also likely
to lead to increased participation and enjoyment (Keegan, Harwood, Spray &  Lavallee, 2009). Environments which are seen to be extremely critical, rigid and  promote social comparison will foster numerous debilitating cognitive and  affective outcomes (Mainwaring, 2009 In. Hall & Hill, 2012).  Providing a  learning environment to promote adaptive perfectionism may be an effective way  to challenge perfectionist mindset.

Are coaches able to identify which athletes have perfectionist traits? And  how can we help coaches create an environment to promote adaptive perfectionism  and healthy motivation? Ideally, for coaches, it would be beneficial to not only  know the signs of a perfectionist athlete, but also how to create the best environment to dissolve maladaptive perfectionism.  In line with Stirling and  Kerrs’ suggestions for future research, “the development of guidelines for  coaches and parents to assist them in assessing, monitoring, and motivating
perfectionistic athletes may also be helpful.” (2001, p. 22), I believe that it  would be beneficial for coachecs to have a better understanding on getting the best out of their perfectionist players.
Picture
References 

Appleton, P. R., Hall,  H. K.,& Hill, A. P.(2009) Relations between multidimensional  perfectionism and burnout in junior-elite male athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10, 457-465 DOI:10.1016/j.psychsport.2008.12.006

 Appleton, P. R., Hall, H. K.,& Hill, A. P. (2011) Examining the influence of the  parent-initiated and coach-created motivational climate upon athletes’  perfectionistic cognitions. Journal of Sports Sciences, 29, 661-671.DOI:10.1080/02640414.2010.551541

Bieling, P.J., Israeli, A., Smith, J. & Antony, M.M. (2004) Is perfectionism good, bad, or both? Examining models of the perfectionism construct. Personality and Individual Differences, 36, 1373-1385.

Blatt, S.J. (1995). The destructiveness of perfectionism;  implications for the treatment of depression. American  Psychologist, 50, 1003-1020.

 DiBartolo, P.M., Frost, R., Dixon, A. & Almodovar, S. (2001) Can Cognitive Restructuring Reduce the Disruption  Associated with Perfectionistic Concerns? Behavior Therapy, 32, 167-184.

 Dunn, J.G.H., Gotwals, J.K., Causgrove-Dunn, J. & Syrotuik, D.G. (2006) Examining the relationship between perfectionism  and trait anger in competitive sport. International Journal of Sport and  Exercise Psychology, 4 (1), 7-24.

 Flett, G.L., Hewitt, P.L., Blankstein, K.R., & Gray, L. (1998) Psychological stress and the frequency of perfectionistic thinking. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 1363-1381. 2009

 Flett, G.L. & Hewitt, P.L. (2005) The  perils of perfectionism in sports and exercise. Current Directions in
Psychological Science,
14, 14-18

 Flett, G.L., Hewitt, P.L. & Dyck, D.J.  (1989) Self-orientated perfectionism, neuroticism, and anxiety. Personality and Individual Differences, 10, 731-735.

 Frost, R.O., Heimberg, R.G., Holt, C.S., Mattia, J.I., Neubauer, A.L. (1993). A comparison of two measures of perfection.  Personality and Individual Differences, 14(1), 119-126.

 Frost, R.O., Marten, P., Lahart, C. &  Rosenblate, R. (1990) The dimensions of perfectionism. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 14, 449-468.

 Hall,  H. K. (2006) Perfectionism: A Hallmark Quality of World Class Performers, or a  Psychological Impediment to Athletic Development? Dieter Hackfort and Gershon  Tenenbaum, (Editors), Perspectives in
Sport and Exercise Psychology
, Volume 1, Essential Processes for Attaining  Peak Performance. Pages 178-211. Meyer & Meyer Publishers, Oxford UK.

Hall,  H. K.  (2013) From adaptive achievement striving to athletic burnout: The debilitating influence of perfectionism. In D. Hackfort and I. Seidelmeier (Editors) Bridging Gaps in Applied Sport and Exercise
Psychology
, 53-78, FIT Publishers. ISBN 978-1-935412-30-4.

 Hall, H.K., & Hill, A.P. (2012). Perfectionism,  dysfunctional achievement striving and burnout in aspiring athletes: the  motivational implications for performing artists. Theatre, Dance and Performance Training, 3(2),
216-228.

Hall, H. K., Hill, A. P., & Appleton, P. R. (2012) Perfectionism: A foundation for sporting excellence or an uneasy pathway toward purgatory? In Roberts, G.C. & Treasure D. (2012) Advances in motivation in sport and exercise:, 3, 129-168. Human Kinetics Publishers.

 Hall, H. K., Hill, A. P., & Appleton, P. R. (2013) Perfectionism: Its development, and its influence on emerging talent in youth sport. In Lidor, R. & Cote, J. Conditions of Children's Talent Development  in Sport, 117-137. FIT Publishers.

Hewitt, P.L. & Flett, G.L. (1991) Perfectionism in the self and social contexts: Conceptualization, assessment,
and association with psychopathology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 456-470.

Hewitt, P.L., Flett, G.L. & Turnbull-Donovan, W. (1992) Perfectionism and multiphasic personality inventory
(MMPI) indices of personality disorder. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioural Assessment, 14, 323-335. 
 
Hill, A.P. & Appleton, P.R. (2011) The  predictive ability of the frequency of perfectionistic cognitions,
self-orientated perfectionism, and socially prescribed perfectionism in relation  to symptoms of burnout in youth rugby players. Journal of Sport Sciences, 29 (7), 695-703.

 Hill, A. P., Hall, H. K.,& Appleton, P. R. (2010). Perfectionism and athlete burnout in junior elite athletes: The mediating role of coping tendencies.  Anxiety, Stress, &
Coping, 23, 415-430
DOI:10.1080/10615800903330966

Hill, A. P., Hall,  H. K., Appleton, P. R., Kozub, S. A. (2008) Perfectionism and burnout in junior elite soccer players: The mediating influence of unconditional  self-acceptance. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 9, 630-644 DOI:10.1016/j.psychsport.2007.09.004

Hill, R.W., McIntire, K. & Bacharach, V.R. (1997) Perfectionism and the big five factors. Journal of Social
Behavior & Personality,
12 (1),  257-270.

Jowett, G. E., Hill, A. P., Hall, H. K., & Curran, T. (2012). Perfectionism and Junior Athlete Burnout: The Mediating Role of Autonomous and Controlled Motivation. Sport, Exercise  and Performance Psychology. Vol 2, 2013, 48-61. DOI:10.1037/a0029770

 Kearns, H., Forbes, A., & Gardiner, M. (2007). A cognitive behavioural coaching intervention for treatment of perfectionism and self  handicapping in a non-clinical population. Behaviour Change, 24(3), 157-172.

 Krasnow, D., Mainwaring, L. & Kerr, G. (1999) Injury, Stress and Perfectionism in Young Dancers and Gymnasts.  Journal of Dance Medicine & Science, 3 (2), 51-58.

Lemyre, P.-N., Hall, H.K. & Roberts, G.C. (2008). A Social  Cognitive Approach to Burnout in Elite Athletes. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 18, 221-234. 

Shafran, R., Cooper, Z. & Fairburn, C.G. (2002) Clinical perfectionism: A cognitive-behavioural analysis. Behaviour  Research and Therapy, 40, 773-791.

Slade, B.F. & Owens, R.G. (1998) A dual  process model of perfectionism based on reinforcement theory. Behavior  Modification, 22 (3), 372-390.

Slade, P.D. & Owens, R.G. (1998) A dual  process model of perfectionism based on reinforcement theory. Behavior Modification, 22 (3), 372-390.

Stoeber, J. (1998)‘The Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism  Scale revisited: More perfect with four (instead of six) dimensions’.  Personality and Individual Differences 24,  481-491
 
Stoeber, J., Uphill, M.A., & Hotham, S. (2009). Predicting  race performance in triathlon: The role of perfectionism, achievement goals, and  personal goal setting. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 37, 211-245.

 Stoeber, J. (2011). The dual nature of perfectionism in sports:  Relationships with emotions, motivation and performance. International  Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 4(2), 128-145. DOI:  10.1080/1750984x.2011.604789

 Stoeber, J., & Eismann, U. (2007). Perfectionism in young  musicians: Relations with motivation, effort, achievement, and distress. Personality and Individual Differences, 43(8), 2182-  2192.

 Stoeber, J., Kobori, O., & Tanno, Y. (2010). The  Multidimensional Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory–English (MPCI-E):  Reliability, validity, and relationships with positive and negative affect. Journal of Personality Assessment, 92(1),  16-25.

Stoeber, J., Stoll, O., Pescheck, E. &  Otto, K. (2008) Perfectionism and achievement goals in athletes: Relations with approach and avoidance orientations in mastery and performance goals. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 9 (2),  102-121.

Stirling,  E.A & Kerr, A.G. (2001). Perfectionism and mood states among recreational  and elite athletes. AthleticInsight: The online journal of sport psychology.

Terry-Short, L.A., Owens, R.G., Slade, P.D., & Dewey, M.E.  (1995). Positive and negative perfectionism. Personality and Individual Differences, 18, 663-668.
1 Comment

    Author

    Tracy Donachie, MSc in Performance Psychology.

    Archives

    May 2019
    May 2017
    August 2015
    July 2015
    November 2014
    October 2014
    August 2014
    July 2014
    June 2014
    May 2014
    April 2014
    March 2014
    February 2014
    January 2014
    December 2013
    November 2013
    October 2013
    September 2013
    August 2013
    July 2013
    June 2013
    May 2013
    April 2013
    March 2013
    January 2013
    June 2012
    April 2012
    March 2012
    May 2011

    Categories

    All
    Anxiety
    Body Image
    Body Language
    Brazil
    Burn Out
    Character
    Child Development
    Coaches
    Communication
    Confidence
    Depression
    Diet
    Eating Disorders
    Education
    Explantory Style
    Fitness
    Happiness
    Health
    In Action Photos
    Injury
    Inspiration
    Leadership
    Life-lessons
    Motivation
    Nutrition
    Optimism
    Perfectionism
    Physical Activity
    Positive Psychology
    Research
    Sport Psychology
    Stress
    Travel
    Video Examples
    Workshop

    RSS Feed

Powered by Create your own unique website with customizable templates.
  • Home
  • My Background
  • Blog
  • Testimonials
  • Athlete's Insight
  • Services
    • Individual Sessions
    • Group or Team Workshops
    • Coach Education
    • Business Leadership
  • Contact